In terms of simple definition “Research” means seeking information/knowledge in a “systematic manner” about a specific issue/topic/area to be able to understand according to the situation/context. Research can look for a new knowledge or modify/refurbish existing understanding. A person can easily seek information however, in order to be considered as ‘research’ that method of seeking information needs to follow certain steps (i.e. systematic process). As because it uses a systematic process called the Scientific Method, research is considered different than other forms of discovering knowledge (other informal ways such as informal discussion, group gathering etc).

The knowledge branch has two different settings of research (i) Natural life /phenomenon research (ii) social life research. The first one deals with natural science i.e laws of nature, laws of gravity etc. and the later focus to generate solid knowledge to understand the social structure around us. Although, the both tries to maintain the scientific method of knowledge generation, but the research process of natural settings are considered more precise and authentic due to its’ data validity, reliability and replication. Although, social research, too, follows the methods used by the natural sciences research . The purpose of research is multidimensional, however, the two primary prupose of research is (i) development of knowledge (ii) study of social and natural life as we see around us.

The focus of systematic inquiry is to produce knowledge either for larger aspects or for individual fulfillment. Emergence of knowledge elites become inevitable as productions of information, knowledge and corresponding knowledge are considered as modern day 'capital' a key resources of power. Researchers or ‘knowledge elites’ having the necessary information and probable solution of a problem, maintain a strong ‘discriminative’ status quo. Although the knowledge is generated from the community, but lay people do not have the systematic approach to process the fragmented knowledge (generated from their day to day practical wisdom) as a visual knowledge hub. And in such case, actual need of the community are not addressed. Also this situation creates situation with limited participation in distribution and dissemination of knowledge.

Generating, disseminating and uses of Knowledge as a power source cause three social process that creates further polarization;

a. In the name of systematic or scientific manner of inquiry, a tendency grows to ignore the actors in the situation as sources of knowledge

b. It also undermine the capacity of ordinary people incapable of engage in serious inquiry, rather it advocate Professionally trained individual are the legitimate producers of knowledge

c. The final process is, by emphasizing on written and printed words other alternate systems of sharing and understanding knowledge are being devalued and considered as not ‘scientific’ enough. Thus causing a imbalance in the Knowledge world.

The purpose of research is to generate knowledge and thus seek solution to make a prosperous society. However nothing is perfect and there will be always opposite philosophy and context. As my understanding on the critique of the current research paradigm, is very much rational and logical.

As the absolute critiques discuss the gaps of knowledge and it’s application in reality. Also it discuss the never ending debate, whether social research look up for “one law to fit all” as the natural research. Even within the own social research arena the constant critique is present to follow the positivist method of research.

The purist and absolute group have some parallel linkage in terms of objectivity and ethics.To me, by detaching oneself from the research participants a researcher may ensure some extent of objectivity but in the long run the lack of human communication will be mechanical and will create more distance in generating authentic knowledge.

The rationalist critique, questions too much reliance on thinking, observing and conceptualizing the methods of knowledge generation in order to reduce subjectivity.

And the final critique comes as discriminatory tools of knowledge elite and research respondents. As the dominant and most common form of knowledge dissemination is the written form and the current intellectual property or copy righted context made it more challenging for common people to access and utilize it in it’s final version.

Research is a search for knowledge. The word research literally means ‘to investigate thoroughly’. It refers to a systematic process of inquiry through scientific methods to discover, interpret, revise facts about a given subject or a problem and thereby generate a new body of knowledge.All research is based on a hypothesis or a research question. There are different types of research: quantitative, qualitative, pragmatic, advocacy etc research. Qualitative and quantitative research methods are most commonly used in academic research. Qualitative research is typically used in the social sciences to study human behavior, culture and society. On the other hand, quantitative research typically involves the use of numbers and statistical information. Pragmatic research methods are used to conduct interdisciplinary research. Instead of sticking to the guidelines of a certain method, a researcher uses several methods to gather and analyze data. Advocacy research also combines different research methods. However, advocacy research is different because it is designed with the intention of responding to the needs of marginalized groups. Consequently, the research must adapt throughout the data gathering process    

The knowledge production, use and dissemination of new knowledge through social research are a major modern enterprise. Most social science research fulfils either of two purposes: First,to enable administrators and policy makers to frame policies for the marginalised and the ‘have-nots’. Second, to fulfill the researchers’ own economic professional and intellectual needs, academic research is conducted at and by academic institutions and universities. Information, knowledge and corresponding knowledge productions are the key resources of power. The process of knowledge production, use and dissemination sets in three important social processes. The first major process is the dismissal of popular knowledge and alternative systems of knowledge production. The second related process is the undermining of the capacities of ordinary people to engage in serious inquiry about their problems and issues of daily concern. The third related social process has been the erosion of the traditional and popular forms of knowledge dissemination.

There is a continuous debate between social research paradigms and modes of alternative methods of research. The alternative approaches to social science research have critiqued the dominant social research paradigms. The process of knowledge production and its use and dissemination often reinforces. We can look at the critique of the conventional research paradigm in the following categories.

There is a wide gap between available knowledge and its utilization. In conventional social science research, knowledge-generation is the key purpose. This lack of utilization of generated knowledge leads to research that cannot be used to improve our social, economic, and political systems. The abilities of people to investigate their own realities are likewise not stimulated or developed. Further, influenced by the research paradigm of natural sciences, social science research also assumes that there is one truth about social phenomena. It is difficult to present a realistic representation of any social phenomenon by believing in one truth.

Many social scientists assume that their research is neutral. However, survey and interview questions, reflect the researcher’s own values and ideology. Professional researchers know all and they control the entire process of research. Therefore, respondents often experience survey research as alienating, dominating, or oppressive in character. The attempt to achieve objectivity by maintaining a strict separation between the researcher and the subjects is also problematic.

The rationalist critique questions excessive reliance on thinking, observing and conceptualizing as main modes of knowing and researching. The researchers tend to oversimplify social reality. The overemphasis on thinking and conceptualization in the conventional research paradigm intends to reduce subjectivity. As a result, the feeling and acting processes have been largely neglected. When compiled in clear data sets, charts and graphs, the information gathered through conventional survey research masks the complexity and the contradictions inherent to human experience.

The development of modern institutions of knowledge production has delegitimized people’s own knowledge- the popular knowledge. Trained and exclusive experts and their institutions have become sole pursuers of knowledge. By conducting research to evolve new insights and theories, they subtly yet powerfully regulate the modern knowledge industry. Papers, books, journals, seminars and conferences as the only legitimate modes of dissemination of knowledge, systematically deprive the ordinary from participating in the process of knowledge production and distribution. As most research findings are communicated in written form, it is researchers, journal editors, and publishers who essentially control the outcome of research.

Dear Ms. Purvi,

Greetings!

As I'm not of social science background, taking more time to understand the topics. Regarding the three questions you have asked to answer, I'm not sure what do want to know by question no 2 -"whose knowledge?" Sorry for my limitations, could you please rephrase the question no.2!

Thanks,

Hejbullah

 

Knowledge world dominate by Research. Billions of dollars investing and millions of human being engaged to create new knowledge by doing research in current world. In simple definition, research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase our understanding of any particular(s) phenomenon. Research is the process of making claims and then refining or abandoning some of them for other claims more strongly warranted. Research is re-thinking, re-testing and re-probing any issues by following a scientific way.

In early stage of research epistemology, mainly dominated by pure scientific research to prove or re-prove any scientific theory mostly in a laboratory or by mathematically. Social issues were not subject to this research. Gradually Social Research paradigm have established as another dominating research type. Social Research attempts to discover cause-and-effect relationships between social problems and find answer or solve social problems. With other, ‘Quantitative’ and ‘Qualitative’ are the main dominant research paradigms under social research. In quantitative research - data analysis is mainly statistical; it includes designs, techniques and measures that produce discrete and distinct, numerical or quantifiable data. But Qualitative research deals with extensive narrative data in order to gain insights into phenomena. Both the research follow some steps to do the research - problem identification, hypothesis formulation, research design, data collection, data analysis, generalization etc.

Though research is creating knowledge, the big question is - research is doing by whom and for whom (applicable to whom). Like social researcher is doing research mainly two purposes: first, - research for the government, donor agencies, and policy institutions concerning the policy formulation for the marginalized and the ‘have-nots’; and second - to fulfill the researchers’ own economic professional and intellectual needs (academic research). Much of the social science research conducted to generate new insights and theories, remain in the domain of professionals, experts and their institutions; not using for changing the human nature. Knowledge produced by this kind of research can be called as ‘Elite Knowledge’. The community’s (the main actor/ research to whom) priorities are not addressed through this new body of knowledge and the ordinary people are systematically deprived from participating in the process of knowledge production and distribution. The powerless (research subject) remain disconnected from those knowledge networks and information flows as they don’t have access to traditional knowledge (books, article, documentary) and Technology.

Research intended to produce that knowledge that serves the needs of those in powers, simply because they are better positioned economically, politically, and socially to determine what questions are asked, as well as to utilize the findings of research. Professionally trained researchers (acting as main decision holder/elite knowledge) are seen as legitimate producers of knowledge, whereas ordinary people (researched community) and the have-nots are seen as lacking the capacities. They are systematically deprived from the process of knowledge production; use and dissemination (written and printed words) system of knowledge emphasis their deprivation. So called experts have been able to control the minds of ordinary people through the intensive use of information technology and the control has been so successfully exercised that ordinary people have been made to feel incapable of creating their own knowledge for solving their problems. So, the so called knowledge/research fully ignores the people (community) who have been researched mostly. Many social scientists thinks that their research is neutral, they ignore the power relations, contrary to this many researcher recognize that their own background shapes their interpretation, and they "position themselves" in the research to acknowledge how their interpretation flows from their own personal, cultural, and historical experiences.

The alternative approaches to social science research (which promote the idea of active engagement with social causes) have critiqued the dominant social research paradigms. The main critiques are -  the key purpose of dominant research is knowledge generation, not its utilization and that cannot be used to improve our social, economic, and political systems;  professional researchers suppose to know everything and they can easily control the entire research process; the overemphasis on thinking and conceptualization in the dominant research paradigm is intended to reduce subjectivity; dominant research paradigm is aimed at its elite control over the methods and outcomes of research; those who are researched have no control over the research and its outcome.

Another group of researchers claims knowledge through an advocacy participatory approach. This position arose during the 1980s and 1990s from individuals who felt that the post positivist assumptions imposed structural laws and theories that did not fit marginalized individuals or groups or did not adequately address issues of social justice.

The meaning of research is a search of new knowledge. Research investigates to discover the new facts and its establishment, to reach for new conclusions, revises the facts, theories and applications. For doing a research, it follows a systematic approach, methods or structure. Different people define research differently. However, Social science research attempts to find out the cause and effects relationships of social facts or problems and answer the problems.

The aim of the research is to discover new facts or verify and test the old facts. Though there are several types of research, naturally it is two types; Quantitative and Qualitative research.   Quantitative research, deal with numerical or discrete data and qualitative research deal with extensive narrative data, observation and case study etc.

Knowledge production, its use and dissemination of new knowledge are the major activities of the social sciences research. The researchers, professional experts, consultants, generally conduct policy research for the government, donor agencies, and policy institutions. Knowledge generated by various disciplines of social sciences that are used for developments and social welfare policies of the countries to solve the problems in the societies.

Secondly Researcher that is, students, subject matter experts conduct academic research at and by academic institutions and universities. The requirements mainly for the award of a doctoral degree or to generate new theories or contributes systemisation of knowledge that packaging the findings in journal, books, seminar and conferences helps in access to research funding and also for career advancement.

There are continuous debate between those supporting dominants social search paradigms and those advocating of alternative method of research. The alternative approaches to social science research have criticized the dominants social science paradigms.

Four categories of critiques of the conventional research paradigm are as follows:

1. Absolute critiques:  In the conventional social research, there is absolute gap between available knowledge and its utilization.  This lake of utilization of knowledge, leads to research that cannot be used to improve our social, economic and political systems.
2. Purist critique: Professional researcher control the entire process of research, which is problematic between researcher and subjects.
3. Rationalist Critique: The excessive dependence on thinking, observing and conceptualizing of knowing and researching i.e. overemphasis on thinking and conceptualization that intended to subjectively. As a result feelings and acting processes have been largely ignored.  On the other hand, from the adults learning prospective, the dominants of research paradigm support only two out of four types of adults learning processes namely, reflective observation and abstract conceptualization but the other two mode of learning, concrete experience and active experimentation are de-emphasis.  
4. Elitist Critique: The final critique of dominant research paradigm is that elite control over the methods and outcomes of research. Most research findings are communicated in the written form; it is researchers, journal editors, and publishers who essentially control the outcome of research. In that case those who assist the research process as respondents or subjects, that is, those who are researched, have no control over the research and the outcome.

What is research?
Research is a Systematic investigative process employed to increase or revise current knowledge by discovering new facts. There is a structure or method in doing research. A definite set of procedures and steps through organised scientific process are followed such as: identify the problem, review the literature, clarify the problem, clearly define terms and concepts, define the population, developed the instrumental plan, collect data, analyzed data, interpretation of analyzed data and report preparation.
Whose Knowledge?
As we know, the main object of any research is to add to the knowledge, which is recorded and preserved. Similarly, social research is an organised and scientific effort to acquire further knowledge about the problem in question. It helps us to obtain and add to the knowledge of social phenomena. This is one of the most important objectives of social research. Most of the social research conducted to generate new insights and theories remain in the domain of professionals, experts and their institutions, because the production of knowledge is perceived to be a specialized profession. Those trained in this profession can legitimately produce it and it is this educated human resource or knowledge elite, which control knowledge in both the abstract and applied forms and they delicately and powerfully regulate the modern knowledge production. They also researching the problems of the community utilise the new knowledge to maintain their status quo. The so-called professional experts, reporting on community practice/knowledge, often tend to distil it into a product in order to make it fit the predetermined external data requirements. Thus, the danger is that the community’s knowledge is used as a tool of the modern knowledge system, rather than using a complementary approach to resource management. Thus, the community’s priorities are not addressed through this new corpse of knowledge and the ordinary people are systematically deprived from participating in the process of knowledge production and distribution.

The process of knowledge production, use and dissemination sets in three important social processes.

The first major process is the dismissal of popular knowledge and alternative systems of knowledge production. The cult of expertise, supported by institutions of research, over the years has neglected the actors in the situation as sources of knowledge, as well as its legitimate owners. Consequently, the experiential and intuitive insights of popular knowledge have been devalued.

The second related process is the undermining of the capacities of ordinary people to engage in serious inquiry about their problems and issues of daily concern. Professionally trained researchers are seen as legitimate producers of knowledge, whereas ordinary people and the have-nots are seen as lacking the capacities, as well as the tools for the production of knowledge. They are logically deprived from either accessing the knowledge produced by the experts, or controlling the means of production of that knowledge.

The third related social process has been the erosion of the traditional and popular forms of knowledge dissemination. The emphasis on written and printed words has cast sideways the alternate systems of sharing and understanding knowledge. Knowledge developed through practice and experience (popular knowledge) is communicated and transferred through oral traditions, which are not necessarily captured in the printed word. Common sense and instinctive knowledge of people is depreciated and subordinated and they become a silent society. A knowledge system that subordinates the knowledge of ordinary people also subordinates them.

Critiquing the dominant research paradigm:
Different people have defined research differently, nothing is ideal. So my understanding on the critiques of the dominant research paradigm are given below:

Without ensuring participation of the community people, it is impossible to deal with their situation. Conventional social research create wide gap between available knowledge and its utilisation. This lack of utilisation of generated knowledge, leads to research that cannot be used to improve our social, economic, and political systems. social science research has also assumed that there is one truth about social phenomena. It is difficult to present a realistic representation of any social phenomenon by believing in one truth alone.

Professional researchers know all and they control the entire process of research without ensuring the people participation. As we know that one of the major objective of the research is to establish new intervention. Nevertheless, this attempt to achieve objectivity by maintaining a strict separation between the researcher and the subjects is problematic. It may create mistrust between the researcher and subject audience as it’s never follow the interactive participatory way. Therefore, people of the society do not want to own the new initiatives established based on the research finding.

The rationalist critique, questions the excessive reliance on thinking, observing and conceptualizing as the main modes of knowing and researching. The overemphasis on thinking and conceptualization in the dominant research paradigm is intended to reduce subjectivity, but as a result, the feeling and acting processes have been largely neglected. It is possible to engage in entire faculties of thinking, feeling and acting in the research process.

In social research paradigms, it has created unequal power relations between the researcher and the research subjects. Research serves the needs of those in powers, simply because they are better positioned economically, politically, and socially to determine. Benefit of the research never goes to the common people as most research findings are communicated in the written form, it is researchers, journal editors, and publishers who essentially control the outcome of research.

What is Research?

Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon.

Research is a search for knowledge. The term 'research' comprises of two syllables, Re and search. Re is a prefix meaning again, a new or over again. Search is a verb, meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe.

Research comprises "creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications.” It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or existing problems, support theories, or develop new theories. A research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects, or the project as a whole.

Research has been defined in a number of different ways. A broad definition of research is given by Martyn Shuttleworth - "In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge."

Another definition of research is given by Creswell who states that - "Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question.

 

Whose Knowledge?

As per Borg and Gall (1996) research contributes to develop four type of knowledge as follows:

1. Description: Results of research can describe natural or social phenomenon, such as its form, structure, activity, change over time, relationship to other phenomena. The descriptive function of research relies on instrumentation for measurement and observations.
2. Prediction: Prediction research is intended to predict a phenomenon that will occur at time Y from information at an earlier time X.
3. Improvement: This type of research is mainly concerned with the effectiveness of intervention. The research approach includes experimental design and evaluation research.
4. Explanation: This type research subsumes the other three: if the researchers are able to explain an educational phenomenon, it means that they can describe, can predict its consequences, and know how to intervene to change those consequences.

Today the knowledge production, use and dissemination of new knowledge through social research are a major modern enterprise. Most social science research fulfills either of two purposes- i). to enable administrators and policy makers to frame policies for the marginalized and the ‘have-nots’, ii). to fulfill the researchers’ own economic professional and intellectual needs, academic research is conducted at and by academic institutions and universities.

The knowledge elite, researching the problems of the community utilize the new knowledge to maintain their status. The so-called professional experts, reporting on community practice/knowledge, often tend to distil it into a product in order to make it fit the predetermined external data requirements. Thus, the danger is that the community’s knowledge is used as a tool of the modern knowledge system, rather than using a complementary approach to resource management. The new communication and information technology is further enabling the knowledge elite to record as well as disseminate knowledge at a rapid speed. Access to knowledge also supports the global networks of the knowledge elite.

The process of knowledge production, use and dissemination sets in three important social processes. The first major process is the dismissal of popular knowledge and alternative systems of knowledge production. The second related process is the undermining of the capacities of ordinary people to engage in serious inquiry about their problems and issues of daily concern. The third related social process has been the erosion of the traditional and popular forms of knowledge dissemination.

 

Critiquing the Dominant Research Paradigm

The control over the process of knowledge production and its use and dissemination often reinforces amongst the have-nots the feelings of powerlessness, ignorance and self-blame. We can look at the critique of the dominant research paradigm in the following four categories-

i) Absolute Critique: In dominant social science research, knowledge-generation is the key purpose. There is a wide gap between available knowledge and its utilization. This lack of utilization of generated knowledge leads to research that cannot be used to improve our social, economic, and political systems. The abilities of people to investigate their own realities are likewise not stimulated or developed. Further, influenced by the research paradigm of natural sciences, social science research also assumes that there is one truth about social phenomena.

ii) Purist Critique: Many social scientists assume that their research is neutral. However, survey and interview questions, consciously or otherwise, reflect the researcher’s own values and ideology; respondents often experience survey research as alienating, dominating, or oppressive in character. The attempt to achieve objectivity by maintaining a strict separation between the researcher and the subjects is also problematic.

iii) Rationalist Critique: The rationalist critique questions excessive reliance on thinking, observing and conceptualizing as main modes of knowing and researching. The researchers tend to oversimplify social reality. The overemphasis on thinking and conceptualization in the conventional research paradigm intends to reduce subjectivity, but as a result, the feeling and acting processes have been largely neglected. The dominant research methods are not consistent with the principles of adult education, which is rooted in an especially strong concern for social justice and equality.

iv) Elitist Critique: The development of modern institutions of knowledge production has delegitimized people’s own knowledge- the popular knowledge. Trained and exclusive experts and their institutions have become sole pursuers of knowledge. By conducting research to evolve new insights and theories, they subtly yet powerfully regulate the modern knowledge industry. Papers, books, journals, seminars and conferences as the only legitimate modes of dissemination of knowledge, systematically deprive the ordinary from participating in the process of knowledge production and distribution. As most research findings are communicated in written form, those who are researched, have no control over the research and its outcome.

The word research came from middle French recerche, from recercher to go about seeking, from Old French recerchier, from re- + cerchier, sercher to search. The traditional pronunciation in British English puts the stress on the second syllable, -search. In US English the stress is reversed and comes on the re-. The US pronunciation is becoming more common in British English and, while some traditionalists view it as incorrect, it is now generally accepted as a standard variant of British English.

Research is investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws.

It also denotes a systematic, formal, rigorous and precise process employed to gain solutions to problems or to discover and interpret new facts and relationships.

There are four types of research: quantitative research, qualitative research, pragmatic research and advocacy research. Qualitative and quantitative research methods are most commonly used in academic research. Qualitative research is typically used in the social sciences to study human behavior, culture and society. On the other hand, quantitative research typically involves the use of numbers and statistical information. This type of research is used in quantitative disciplines, such as economics and mathematics.

Pragmatic research methods are used to conduct interdisciplinary research. Instead of sticking to the guidelines of a certain method, a researcher uses several methods to gather and analyze data.

Advocacy research also combines different research methods. However, advocacy research is different because it is designed with the intention of responding to the needs of marginalized groups.

The knowledge base of social work is the accumulated theoretical work and empirical work that we use to benefit our clients. Research and knowledge development in our profession are a vast enterprise concerned with physical, mental and economic health; individual, family and community welfare; interests of diverse groups in society; thinking about problems, defining them and identifying effective means for ameliorating them. Knowledge production, its use and dissemination of new knowledge are the major activities of the social sciences research. The researchers, professional experts, consultants, generally conduct policy research for the government, donor agencies, and policy institutions. Knowledge generated by various disciplines of social sciences that are used for developments and social welfare policies of the countries to solve the problems in the societies.

The modes of dissemination of this knowledge are equally diverse and include traditional textual outlets such as books and articles; relational outlets such as informal conversations with colleagues, formal consultations, continuing education workshops and seminars; and, increasingly, electronic outlets such as Internet sites, electronic journals and conferences.

In conventional social science research, knowledge-generation is the key purpose. The control over the process of knowledge production and its use and dissemination often reinforces amongst the have-nots the feelings of powerlessness, ignorance and self blame. We can look at the critique of the conventional research paradigm in the following four categories.

Critique 1: There is a wide gap between available knowledge and its utilization. This lack of utilization of generated knowledge leads to research that cannot be used to improve our social, economic, and political systems. For instance, survey research is not conducive to subsequent action. Research alienates respondents, or at best treats them as sources of raw information. The abilities of people to investigate their own realities are likewise not stimulated or developed. Further, influenced by the research paradigm of natural sciences, social science research also assumes that there is one truth about social phenomena. It is difficult to present a realistic representation of any social phenomenon by believing in one truth.

Critique 2: Many social scientists assume that their research is neutral. Under the guise of achieving objectivity, rigor is maintained by the researcher’s control over the focus and methods of inquiry. However, survey and interview questions, consciously or otherwise, reflect the researcher’s own values and ideology. Professional researchers know all and they control the entire process of research. Therefore, respondents often experience survey research as alienating, dominating, or oppressive in character. The attempt to achieve objectivity by maintaining a strict separation between the researcher and the subjects is also problematic. Firstly, researchers share essential humanity with their subjects; they are, therefore, subject to same laws that they are attempting to understand. Secondly, the sheer presence of another person has impact over the research ‘subject’, or the people under study. Therefore, despite researchers’ best efforts to be objective, controlled social reality is always a distortion.

Critique 3:  The rationalist critique questions excessive reliance on thinking, observing and conceptualizing as main modes of knowing and researching. The researchers tend to oversimplify social reality. The overemphasis on thinking and conceptualization in the conventional research paradigm intends to reduce subjectivity, but as a result, the feeling and acting processes have been largely neglected. When compiled in clear data sets, charts and graphs, the information gathered through conventional survey research masks the complexity, the richness, and the contradictions inherent to human experience. The conventional research methods are not consistent with the principles of adult education, which is rooted in an especially strong concern for social justice and equality. These principles include: programs should be based on adult needs; adults are more able to articulate their learning needs than children; although adults’ ways of learning change with age, the phrase ‘too old to learn’ is a fallacy; adults often work out quite complex learning strategies to achieve desired goals on their own. The conventional research paradigm only supports two of the four types of adult learning processes: reflective observation and abstract conceptualization.

Critique 4: The development of modern institutions of knowledge production has delegitimized people’s own knowledge- the popular knowledge. Trained and exclusive experts and their institutions have become sole pursuers of knowledge. By conducting research to evolve new insights and theories, they subtly yet

powerfully regulate the modern knowledge industry. Papers, books, journals, seminars and conferences as the only legitimate modes of dissemination of knowledge, systematically deprive the ordinary from

participating in the process of knowledge production and distribution. As most research findings are

communicated in written form, it is researchers, journal editors, and publishers who essentially control the outcome of research. Those who assist the research process as respondents or subjects, that is, those who are researched, have no control over the research and its outcome.

In spite of the above critiques, it is important to remember that numbers or statistics in and of themselves are not the key problem. In fact, mostly they are useful as quantitative statistics summarize social information in a form that is convenient and can be readily transferred and disseminated. Accurate statistics around poverty levels, or illiteracy rates, for example, are important information for people to gather knowledge about their own communities.

1. What is Research?

Research is a planned, systematic, scientific and rigorous process of searching, investigating,  experiment new and or existing knowledge by gather information in any discipline of life and or any issue.

Research is

-          Systematic

-          Rigorous

-          Part of professionalism

Research is knowledge driven approach for………….

-          Answer question

-          Solve problem

-          Discover

-          Developing

-          Refine

-          Validate

-          Expand

Goal of Research Process:

The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic or issue. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscure):

• Exploratory research, which helps to identify and define a problem or question.
• Constructive research, which tests theories and proposes solutions to a problem or question.
• Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence.

 Steps of Research:

The following steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied:

1)   Observation and formation of the topic: Consists of the subject area of ones interest and following that subject area to conduct subject related research. The subject area should not be randomly chosen since it requires reading a vast amount of literature on the topic to determine the gap in the literature the researcher intends to narrow. A keen interest in the chosen subject area is advisable. The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the topic.

2)  Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates the relationship between two or more variables.

3)  Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by relating it to other concepts.

4) Operational definition: Details in regards to defining the variables and how they will be measured/assessed in the study.

5)  Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a population and selecting samples, gathering information from and/or about these samples by using specific research instruments. The instruments used for data collection must be valid and reliable.

6)  Analysis of data: Involves breaking down the individual pieces of data in order to draw conclusions about it.

7)  Interpretation of data: This can be represented through tables, figures and pictures, and then described in words.

8)   Test , revision of Hypothesis

9)   Conclusion, reiteration if needed

Types of Research design:

There are two major types of research design: qualitative research and quantitative research. Researchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods according to the nature of the research topic they want to investigate and the research questions they aim to answer:

(a) Qualitative research: Understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. Asking a broad question and collecting data in the form of words, images, video etc that is analyzed and searching for themes. This type of research aims to investigate a question without attempting to quantifiably measure variables or look to potential relationships between variables. It is viewed as more restrictive in testing hypotheses because it can be expensive and time consuming, and typically limited to a single set of research subjects.Qualitative research is often used as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative research hypotheses.Qualitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of  social construction

(b) Quantitative research: Systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. Asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze utilizing statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental, co-relational, and survey (or descriptive). Statistics derived from quantitative research can be used to establish the existence of associative or causal relationships between variables. Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of  positivism

Mixed-method research, i.e. research that includes qualitative and quantitative elements, using both primary and secondary data, is becoming more common.

 2.   Whose Knowledge?

 Research is for the people irrespective of age, gender, ethnicity, religions, cast and countries. Knowledge is the key elements of research. Knowledge can be generated from all individual stakeholders of any research work. It can be made benefit for all parties who supposed to be involved with research work.  

As research try to expose any new facts and findings, which could be utilized for people directly or in a customized way. Research deals with human life, human behavior, social groups and social institutions in Anthropology, Behavior Science, Commerce, Demography, Economics, Education, Geography, History, Law, Linguistics, Management, Political Science, Psychology, Public Administration, Sociology, and Social Work. Considering the own values, terminology, methods and techniques every one of these disciplines can use the knowledge of research. Research can be conducted and executed by the people who want to develop knowledge, study life scientifically, welfare humanity, classify facts, control and predict social phenomena. The knowledge is also created and applied by the professors, scholars, students, politicians, economists. It can be used by policy makers, planners and also by the practitioners. Actually, the knowledge of research is by the human being, for the human being and of the human being.

 3. Critiquing the dominant research paradigm

 When researchers talk about different approaches to research, they talk about “paradigms.”

• A paradigm is a “worldview” or a set of assumptions about how things work.
• A paradigm is  a “shared understandings of reality”
• Quantitative and qualitative research methods involve very different assumptions about how research should be conducted and the role of the researcher.

Different paradigms : the two primary paradigms are:

• Positivism – associated with quantitative research.  Involves hypothesis testing to obtain “objective” truth. Also used to predict what may happen at a future date. Critical realism is a subtype of positivism that incorporates some value assumptions on the part of the researcher. It involves looking at power in society. Researchers primarily rely on quantitative data to do this.
• Interpretivism –associated with qualitative research. Used to obtain an understanding of the word from an individual perspective.

Critical Humanism is a subtype of the interpretive paradigm. The critical humanism approach is one in which the researcher involves people studied in the research process. Data is used for social change.

Categories of critiques: Categories of critiques of the conventional research paradigm are as follows:

• Absolute critiques:  In the conventional social research, there is absolute gap between available knowledge and its utilization.  This lake of utilization of knowledge, leads to research that cannot be used to improve our social, economic and political systems.
• Purist critique: Professional researcher control the entire process of research, which is problematic between researcher and subjects.
• Rationalist Critique: The excessive dependence on thinking, observing and conceptualizing of knowing and researching i.e. overemphasis on thinking and conceptualization that intended to subjectively. As a result feelings and acting processes have been largely ignored.  On the other hand, from the adults learning prospective, the dominants of research paradigm support only two out of four types of adults learning processes namely, reflective observation and abstract conceptualization but the other two mode of learning, concrete experience and active experimentation are de-emphasis.  
• Elitist Critique: The final critique of dominant research paradigm is that elite control over the methods and outcomes of research. Most research findings are communicated in the written form; it is researchers, journal editors, and publishers who essentially control the outcome of research. In that case those who assist the research process as respondents or subjects, that is, those who are researched, have no control over the research and the outcome.

 

 

 Great discussion!! Sorry for being late in joining this discussion.

Following are my reaction/response to those 3 questions:

 What is research?

In its simplest form the definition of research refers to  “a systematic and rigorus process of searching new knowledge or testing/verifying existing knowledge in any discipline of life”.  Since Research has been defined differently by different people, to me the on of the most comprehensive definition is:  “ Research is a careful, systematic, study and investigation in some field of knowledge, to discover and establish new facts, reach new conclusions or revise facts, theories and applications”.

There are numerous reasons why research is important and done. Following are the examples of some of those:   To inform policy decisions, to find solutions to a complex problem be it social, political, economic, medical, or geographical, to test the efficacy of a new drug, to find answers to questions that do not have a ready-made answer or have controversial answers, to describe the extent, the depth and significance of a problem, to understand the underlying factors that are responsible for any given situation or a problem, to understand causal pathways (what leads to what) through which any particular problem occurs,  to understand deep rooted structural factors that directly or indirectly shape people’s behavior and attitude………etc. The list could be really long.

Research can be of many different types based on its objectives/purpose, and the methods that it applies.

Based on objectives, research can be categorized into four major groups: (a) Basic (b) Applied (c) Descriptive (d) Analytical

Basic research focuses on generating new knowledge in any branch of knowledge where as applied research is done to find solution to a current problem and the knowledge generated through the research is applied immediately to solve the problem.

Descriptive research, the main objective is to describe an existing situation, what and how with very limited scope to explain why that situation exists.

Whereas analytical research focuses more on doing rigorus and scientifically sound causal analysis to explain why that situation exists, in most cases analytical research is done to establish cause and effects relationship, to demonstrate attribution of a project or program to the achieved impact, to test a new hypothesis or verify existing hypothesis that does not have enough scientific knowledge to support evidence.

Based on methods, research can be divided into 3 different types; Quantitative, qualitative or mixed method that apply both. Quantitative research focuses on collecting facts and figures in numeric terms, analysing those using various statistical tools and methods and present the findings to describe how big or serious a situation/problem is. The qualitative research on the other hand focuses more on collecting facts in narrative form, analyzing the relationship between various facts using qualitative tools and give possible explanations of why that situation exists.  Both quantitative and qualitative research can play a very strong complementary role to each other, and that is why the mixed method approach is getting more and more popular and becoming method of choice particularly for social and development sector.

However within those broad types describe above, there are lots of different types of research those are known by the method that is used to conduct each of those, such as cross sectional survey, case-control study, randomized controlled trial, longitudinal survey, participatory action research, ethnographic research, theoretical and empirical research,  idiographic and nomothetic  Research etc. etc.  Apart from these research can also be categorized by the major domain or areas of research such as Medical or clinical research, social research, economic research, political research etc . However which is more important is that before choosing any particular types of research, it is crucial to be very clear about the objective and have a clearly articulated set of research questions.

Whose knowledge?

Definitely all knowledge is important. However not all data or information is knowledge as it is, it has to be gathered using proper tools, synthesized and analysed using rigorus methods to translate that into knowledge. From that perspective, yes researcher definitely deserves the credit to translate the data and information into knowledge, but if he or she manipulates data or information produce knowledge that only satisfy him/herself or a particular group then it is definitely not acceptable. As researcher it is extremely important to ensure that H/she captures knowledge from the right people (the direct beneficiaries as well as other stakeholders who might have knowledge about the same subjects) and all the possible available sources and analyse and present it without distorting the key message. That is why particularly in social research, validation of knowledge before drawing any conclusion or making inference out of it is very important.

On the last point "Critiquing the dominant research paradigm" this is a completely new learning for me, so thanks to course organizer. Yes I have learnt that there are mainly 4 types of critique:

Absolute Critique, Purist Critique, rationalist critique and Elitist critique.

To me the way I understood “absolute critique”  is that when research is done with the main purpose of generating knowledge but not to take action on that meaning in many cases the findings of the research or the new is not properly utilized for the benefits of human being . This is really a very common practice and a major area of concern. Any research design therefore should have a clear plan of how the research findings/knowledge will be utilized.

Purist Critique is when the methods and the process is entirely controlled by the researchers in order to maintain the objectivity, which again can have the risk of losing some important knowledge or distortion of the fact just because of the rigidity in research design.

The Rationalist critique refers to over reacting or the excessive reliance on thinking, observing and conceptualising as the main modes of knowing and researching.

“The final critique of the dominant research paradigm is aimed at its elite control over the methods and outcomes of research. The techniques of research are presently available only to a body of professionals who enjoy elite status ….. . those who are researched, have no control over the research and its outcome. So there is a risk that “Research serves the needs of those in power, simply because they are better positioned economically, politically, and socially to determine what questions are asked, as well as to utilise the findings of research. The providers of information are denied any control over it”.

I liked the conclusion that said “In spite of the above critiques, it is important for us to remember that dominant conventional social research paradigms per se are not a problem. In fact, they are usually useful as they summarise social information in a form which is convenient and is readily transferred and disseminated”.

Cheers!!!

Eliza